On the morning of 2 January 2025, Hanoi’s streets were shrouded in a thick haze, a stark visual reminder of Vietnam’s escalating air pollution crisis. The capital city, recently ranked as the most polluted in the world by the IQAir World Air Quality Report, is choking under a blanket of smog and fine dust, with the Air Quality Index (AQI) frequently reaching hazardous levels. This is not merely a local issue but a nationwide emergency, as Vietnam stands as the second most polluted country in ASEAN. As the government and experts scramble for solutions, the question looms large: can Vietnam shift its approach to manage emissions effectively before the health and environmental toll becomes irreversible?
The causes of Vietnam’s air pollution are manifold, ranging from industrial operations and construction to transportation, livestock farming, and agricultural practices such as straw burning. Fine particulate matter (PM2.5), a primary pollutant, poses severe risks to respiratory health and, increasingly, mental well-being. As Hoàng Dương Tùng, president of the Clean Air Network, warns, the country’s reliance on outdated, broad-brush approaches has yielded little progress. “We’ve been relying on old methods for too long,” Tùng told Vietnam News. “We need to change our approach to managing air pollution.”
A Call for Precision in Pollution Management
Tùng advocates for a paradigm shift towards a more granular strategy, starting with the identification of specific pollution sources. Which factories contribute the most? Which construction sites flout dust control regulations? Environmental agencies, he argues, must embrace digital transformation by creating an emissions database for each entity, from industrial plants to livestock farms. An Inventory-Based System (IBS) could mandate businesses to measure and report emissions regularly, with large polluters installing automatic monitoring equipment. Transparency is key—publicly accessible data platforms would allow citizens to track emissions, while automated alerts could flag violations for immediate action. 
Drawing inspiration from China, which has invested billions over a decade to integrate such systems, Tùng suggests Vietnam could prevent environmental disasters before they unfold. “Such a system helps prevent incidents before they happen, rather than waiting for problems to occur,” he said. Additional measures, like installing cameras at construction sites to monitor dust control compliance and encouraging farmers to sell straw rather than burn it, could tackle specific pollution sources head-on. However, funding remains a critical hurdle—building the necessary infrastructure for data reporting and monitoring demands significant investment.
Tùng also calls for a dedicated Clean Air Act, separate from the current Environmental Protection Law (2020), which covers air, water, and waste under a single framework. “It’s not enough,” he stresses. “A one-size-fits-all regulation does not work for environmental issues.” A tailored law could address air pollution’s unique challenges with detailed standards and enforcement mechanisms, learning from countries like China, which has multiple specific air quality laws.
The Hidden Toll on Mental Health
Beyond the visible smog, air pollution’s impact on mental health is emerging as a profound concern. Gordon Ingram, a senior lecturer at RMIT University, highlights how seasonal shifts exacerbate pollution by trapping fine dust near the ground, creating not just physical discomfort but psychological strain. “Air pollution is harmful not just because chemicals in the air are poisonous, but because they can have direct effects on our brain, mind, and behaviour,” Ingram explains. Many Hanoi residents report dips in mood, irritability, and fatigue during polluted periods, with some experiencing symptoms akin to seasonal affective disorder.
Emerging research links air pollution to cognitive decline, depression, anxiety, and even neurological issues like dementia, particularly affecting vulnerable groups such as pregnant women, children, and the elderly. While these studies are recent and require further exploration, the implications are clear: a healthier environment is essential for a healthier mindset. “Real change requires smart policies and enforcement,” Ingram urges, pointing to cleaner energy, stricter emissions controls, and better urban planning as critical steps forward.
Transport Emissions: A Solvable Challenge?
Transportation, a significant contributor to urban pollution, offers a tangible area for intervention. Đinh Thị Thanh Bình, head of the Faculty of Transport Planning and Management at the University of Transport, notes that buses, despite higher total emissions per vehicle, are far more environmentally friendly per passenger compared to private cars and motorbikes. A diesel bus carrying 60 passengers over 10 kilometres emits about 0.18kg of CO2 per person, while a private car with four passengers emits 0.4kg per person over the same distance. Motorbikes, often carrying just one or two people, emit 0.3kg per person.
Yet, in cities like Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, only about 10% of daily trips are made by bus. Motorbikes dominate, with private cars accounting for 10-15% of commutes. Public transport infrastructure, primarily bus-based, struggles to meet demand, while large-scale systems like urban rail are still nascent. Bình advocates for rapid development of high-capacity networks—urban rail, Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), and express buses—alongside improvements to existing bus services, such as reduced waiting times and better accessibility to stops. Integrating land use and traffic planning, through concepts like Transit-Oriented Development (TOD), could reduce reliance on personal vehicles from the outset.
“Push-pull” measures are also essential. “Push” strategies might include higher taxes on private cars, restricted parking, and tighter emissions standards, while “pull” incentives could make public transport more appealing. Vũ Bích Phượng, an associate lecturer at RMIT University Vietnam, emphasises the psychological barriers to changing transport habits. “Humans need more than willpower to commit to change,” she says. Policies must offer continuous rewards—priority bus lanes, contactless payments, real-time tracking at stops, and gamified loyalty programmes—while deterring private vehicle use through parking fees and city centre restrictions. “Rewards create positive emotions like satisfaction and pride,” Phượng notes, suggesting that targeting just 3.5% of the population could spark broader societal shifts, based on behavioural research.
Cultural Innovations and Global Lessons
Phượng also points to cultural innovations as a way forward. South Korea, for instance, enhances public transport appeal with heated bus stop seats and cartoon-themed buses, embedding positive habits from childhood. The Netherlands has cultivated a cycling culture that feels enjoyable rather than burdensome. Vietnam, with its historical reliance on eco-friendly xích lô (cyclos), could revive this tradition by modernising it with electric assistance and aesthetic designs for shade and social media appeal. “What if we can bring it back?” Phượng muses, envisioning a uniquely Vietnamese solution.
## The Road Ahead: Policy and Public Will
Vietnam stands at a crossroads. The air pollution crisis, vividly evident in Hanoi’s smoggy streets, demands urgent, innovative action. From digital emissions tracking and a dedicated Clean Air Act to high-capacity public transport and cultural reinventions, the solutions are within reach—but they require political will, substantial investment, and public buy-in. If reforms are implemented effectively, they may reduce the health and environmental burden; however, without confirmed funding or timelines, such outcomes remain speculative.
As Tùng aptly puts it, “Pollution or not is essentially a matter of human action.” The haze over Hanoi is a call to arms for decisive, concrete steps. Whether Vietnam can clear its skies—and its citizens’ lungs and minds—depends on whether it can transform rhetoric into results. For now, the capital’s residents breathe uneasily, waiting for change.
